Why the Kazakh Steppe Became the Crucible of Soviet Nuclear Testing

The Cold War is often referred to as a bloodless conflict. Although it was characterized by an intensive arms race, neither superpower used its massive nuclear arsenal to attack the other.

Despite this fortunate outcome, recent scholarship has emphasized that there were, in fact, victims.¹Masco, Joseph, and Joseph Masco. The Nuclear Borderlands: The Manhattan Project in Post-Cold War New Mexico. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2020.^,2Roxanne Panchasi, “‘No Hiroshima in Africa’: The Algerian War and the Question of French Nuclear Tests in the Sahara,” History of the Present 9, no. 1 (2019): 84–112.^,3Traci Brynne Voyles, Wastelanding: Legacies of Uranium Mining in Navajo Country (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2015).

Hundreds of thousands of citizens around the world suffered exposure to dangerous levels of radiation from nuclear weapons testing (Harmon report, 1949). Among the many victims, typically those belonging to economically and politically disadvantaged social groups, were the Kazakh pastoralists who lived perilously close to the Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site (SNTS) in what is now northeastern Kazakhstan.⁴Johnston, Barbara. Half-Lives and Half-Truths: Confronting the Radioactive Legacies of the Cold War. Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Press, 2013

In a rush to develop a nuclear arsenal capable of rivaling that of the United States’, Soviet leaders secretly designed and built a new city by the name of Semipalatinsk-21 as the headquarters for their nuclear testing program.⁵Nazarbaev, Nursultan. Epicenter of Peace. Hollis, NH: Puritan Press, 2001.

But, why was Kazakhstan chosen? More specifically, why did Soviet leaders choose a site in the Semipalatinsk region of the Central Asian republic to test their first atomic bomb?

Imagine a sprawling expanse of grassy plains, an awe-inspiring landscape that stretches over a staggering 800,000 square kilometers. This magnificent terrain is none other than the renowned Kazakh steppe.

In a carefully calculated move, Soviet leaders strategically selected this unique site for its potential as a hub for future atmospheric nuclear tests. The flat and expansive surface of the steppe proved to be an ideal canvas upon which the military could construct the requisite infrastructure, both above and below ground.

The mighty Irtysh River, one of the largest on the continent, flowed through the region, offering a vital supply of water. The river’s presence ensured the testing operations had access to an indispensable resource, facilitating their execution.

Construction materials held sway in this remarkable region, as the surrounding area abounded in abundant resources. The availability of wood, sand, and stone within close proximity further facilitated the establishment of the necessary structures.⁶Kassenova, Togzhan. Atomic Steppe: How Kazakhstan Gave Up the Bomb. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2022.

Tucked away from prying eyes, away from major cities and distant from bustling transportation hubs, the future testing site would be veiled in secrecy. This vast testing site, encompassing an astounding area exceeding 18,500 square kilometers earned its sobriquet, the Polygon.

While Soviet officials declared the area as uninhabited, their claims concealed a contrasting reality. A mere 120 kilometers away from the testing site lay the vibrant city of Semipalatinsk (modern-day Semey), whose population was estimated to be over one million.⁷“Four Decades of Nuclear Testing: The Legacy of Semipalatinsk.” EClinicalMedicine 13 (August 29, 2019): 1. Link.

Furthermore, scattered throughout an 80-kilometer radius surrounding the testing site, rural settlements teemed with inhabitants.⁸Kassenova, Togzhan. Atomic Steppe: How Kazakhstan Gave Up the Bomb. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2022.