With the potential to forever alter the course of global security, the inaugural test of the world’s first thermonuclear weapon poised itself to redefine the trajectory of human history. Codenamed “Mike,” this groundbreaking test was conducted by the United States on November 1, 1952, at the Enewetak atoll in the Marshall Islands. It marked a pivotal milestone, proving the feasibility of unleashing multimegaton blasts with unprecedented force.
The Mechanics Behind Thermonuclear Weapons
Thermonuclear weapons, often referred to as hydrogen bombs, harness an extraordinary amount of energy by combining two distinct stages: a primary fission explosion and a secondary fusion reaction.
In the first stage, the primary fission explosion takes place. It relies on the splitting (fission) of heavy atomic nuclei, such as uranium or plutonium. This fission reaction releases a substantial amount of energy, similar to what occurs in atomic bombs like those used in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The real power of a thermonuclear weapon, however, lies in the second stage: the fusion reaction. Fusion involves the merging (fusion) of light atomic nuclei, specifically isotopes of hydrogen, like deuterium and tritium. To initiate this fusion, the energy released from the primary fission explosion is utilized.
When the fusion reaction begins, an enormous amount of additional energy is released. This fusion process is akin to the same reaction that powers the Sun, where hydrogen atoms combine to form helium and release an enormous amount of energy in the process.The resulting explosion from a thermonuclear weapon is incredibly powerful, often several orders of magnitude more destructive than a basic fission weapon.
In the case of “Mike,” the resulting detonation unleashed a staggering 10.4 megatons of energy—over 450 times the destructive power of the bomb dropped on Nagasaki. The blast obliterated the once-thriving Elugelab island, leaving in its wake an underwater crater.
Shadows of Doubt?
Meanwhile, on the other side of the globe, the Soviet Union was diligently preparing to conduct their own thermonuclear weapon test. However, in early March of 1953, news broke of Stalin’s death, sending shockwaves through the Soviet Union and impacting the nation’s nuclear program. The passing of Stalin, a dictator who had maintained a tight grip on the program, raised questions about the future of this ambitious endeavor.
In the subsequent power struggle that ensued, Nikita Khrushchev emerged as the First Secretary of the Soviet Communist Party, with an ardent desire to oust Beria, the influential figurehead of the Soviet nuclear effort. By June 1953, a mere two months before the scheduled test of the first Soviet thermonuclear weapon, Nikita Khrushchev orchestrated the arrest and subsequent execution of Lavrentiy Beria.
Having lost a figure whose influence and authority loomed large over the program left nuclear weapons scientists grappling with apprehension about their future. However, Khrushchev’s appointment of Vyacheslav Malyshev as the new head of the program assuaged their concerns. With Malyshev at the helm, preparations for testing the Soviet thermonuclear weapon proceeded unabated.
This transformative era marked a turning point in the global nuclear landscape. The United States had demonstrated the immense destructive potential of thermonuclear weapons, while the Soviet Union pressed forward, undeterred by internal upheaval.
Sakharov’s Breakthrough
At a remarkably young age of thirty-two, Andrei Sakharov emerged as the mastermind behind the design of the first Soviet thermonuclear bomb. His exceptional intellect and unwavering dedication to scientific advancement propelled him to the forefront of the Soviet nuclear program, solidifying his place among the brightest minds of his generation.
In the late summer of 1953, Andrei Sakharov and his colleagues accomplished a groundbreaking feat by developing the first Soviet thermonuclear bomb. Under the guidance of Yuli Khariton, the chief weapons designer, the construction of the new weapon commenced. Sakharov playfully named the bomb “Sloika,” meaning “layer cake,” owing to its design that involved alternating layers containing a deuterium compound and uranium-238. This innovative concept relied on radiation-ionization compression of thermonuclear fuel.
Read more about how Sloika works here.
Once the Sloika was ready, it was transported by rail to the Semipalatinsk Polygon, the designated testing site. However, the team was soon confronted with an unexpected complication that had been overlooked amidst the preparations and calculations—the issue of fallout. Realizing the potential danger to those within the zone where radiation could exceed 200 roentgen, Sakharov and his team faced a moral dilemma. Evacuation of individuals within this range seemed imperative, as a dose of 100 roentgen could harm vulnerable individuals, while 600 roentgens might be fatal to half of the healthy adults exposed.1Sakharov, Andrei Dmitrievič, and Richard Lourie. Memoirs. New York: Knopf, 1990, pp. 171.
We had all been so busy preparing the device, organizing the test, and performing calculations that we simply lost sight of the fallout problem.2Ibid., pp. 172.
In the face of this concern, military director Marshal Vasilevsky offered a response that reflected the harsh realities of necropolitics in the Soviet Union. He implied that the greater good of the country’s defense and the significance of their nuclear tests outweighed individual casualties, likening them to normal casualties in army maneuvers.
There’s no need to torture yourselves. Army maneuvers always result in casulaties––twenty or thirty deaths can be considered normal. And your tests are far more vital for the country and its defense.3Ibid., pp. 172.
Nonetheless, on August 8, 1953, Soviet Premier Georgy Malenkov proudly declared that the United States no longer held a monopoly on the hydrogen bomb. Just four days later, on August 12, 1953, the RDS-6s test, the inaugural test of a Soviet thermonuclear device, was conducted.
Reports indicated that the yield of the Sloika bomb ranged from 200 to 400 kilotons, approximately a fifth of which resulted from fusion. The device was determined to be a single-stage bomb, with certain layers containing lithium-6 deuteride and lithium tritide to generate extra neutrons during the explosion, while other layers held uranium-238. The compression mechanism relied on high explosives rather than radiation. The Soviets’ use of lithium-6 and airdropping a thermonuclear bomb preceded the Americans, inspiring confidence in their future endeavors to develop even more awe-inspiring hydrogen bombs.
The “Joe-4” test caused concerns among the U.S. government and military because it was a deliverable weapon, something the U.S. had yet to achieve. Though the device was arguably not a “true” hydrogen bomb and only yielded hundreds of kilotons (falling short of the megaton range of a “staged” weapon), it served as a potent propaganda tool for the Soviet Union. The subtle technical distinctions were lost on the American public and politicians, with “Joe-4” further solidifying claims that the inevitability of these bombs was now undeniable, thus vindicating those who supported the development of the fusion program.
In the wake of the “Joe-4” test, the profound impact of human livelihood’s vulnerability in the face of national security became evident. The success of the Soviet Union in achieving what no other government had yet accomplished underscored the stark reality of nuclear capabilities reshaping the geopolitical landscape. As the arms race escalated, the world found itself perched on the edge of an uncertain precipice, where the fate of nations and the destinies of individuals were subject to the arbitrariness of global power dynamics.
TO BE ADDED:
“I saw a blinding yellow-white sphere swiftly expand, turn orange in a fraction of a second, then turn bright red and touch the horizon, flattening out at its base… Shock waves crisscrossed the sky, emitting sporadic milky-white cones and adding to the mushroom image. I felt heat like that from an open furnace on my face–and this was in freezing weather, tens of miles from ground zero.”
news of two accidents immediately dampened the scientists’ exuberant mood…. “I experienced a range of contradictory sentiments, perhaps chief among them a fear that this newly released force could slip out of control and lead to unimaginable disasters.”
