Author Archives: Evelyn Wallace

Nature as a Work of God in Avvakum’s Autobiography

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In many of the religious texts we have read, the theme of suffering and sacrifice is very prominent. In “Avvakum’s Autobiography”, Avvakum is able to transcend his human and earthly existence through his journey of being degraded to a subhuman existence. Much of this degradation is expressed through animal and nature motifs, an element we have commonly seen in many Ancient Russian, religious texts. Avvakum is degraded by being naked and forced to walk barefoot on the sharp ground and feed on grass and roots. This suffering physically and spiritually strips Avvakum of everything and he can only turn to God for help and mercy. Avvakum says that “God warmed [him]” in absence of clothing and that he laid there like a dog (133). Through this use of metaphor we are able to see how Avvakum’s suffering and persecution and his degradation to an animal-like existence, brings him closer to the earthly world and to God. 

Yet in his journey, Avvakum also turns to nature such as water (lakes and rivers) to survive, in this way we see this duality in which nature is used to both torture and releive. We see how Avvakum’s time in the wilderness brings almost unbearable hardships but it’s also allows to him to appreciate the wonders of nature. In this way the suffering is humbling and grounding. The vastness of this nature imagery is a way to illustrate the challenges Avvakum faces, evoking images of tall mountains and dense forests. It is the duality of this metaphor that shows how Avvakum’s salvation is achieved by his willingness to be challenged and to suffer for God.  

These motifs are contrasted against the images of the man who is “enslaved by vanity” and does not partake in prayer who is represented as a goat, lynx, and serpent to evoke the image of the devil (136). The use of these animals is to highlight how people who do not engage in prayer consume/indulge then rest without giving thanks. This is a moral warning against excessive indulgence and not reckoning with one’s sins when the final judgement comes. Through his dedication to God, Avvakum’s final years are spent trapped underground, again emphasizing his connection to the earth. Ultimately, Avvakum achieves salvation through his hardships, adherence to his beliefs, and his reverence for nature and the works of God.

Blood and Suffering: exploring the religious implications of Tsar Ivan’s barbaric rule

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In “First Epistle to Tsar Ivan,” various motifs are employed to express the theme of suffering and imbue such suffering with religious significance. One of the most salient motifs in the text is that of the shedding of “christian blood like water.” This motif is also seen in the painting of Ivan the Terrible and his son, showing Ivan’s depraved and inhumane nature and the depth of suffering he caused. Blood is a physical manifestation of the suffering of the Russian people caused by Tsar Ivan’s autocratic rule. But by equating blood to water, it also has a religious and moral connotation. Water plays a role of cleansing and baptizing, and blood in this text takes meaning of duty and loyalty to one’s faith and country; the text states “if it is true that your blood has been spilled by the enemy, then you have done your duty to your country” (376). If one does not perform their duty to their country they would not be a true Christian, using the motif of blood and suffering as a way to mutually express devotion to both country and religion. The shedding of blood and self sacrifice are a way for Christians to prove one’s devotion and therefore play a spiritually cleansing and baptizing role, and thus tie religious faith to the idea of suffering for one’s beliefs. Blood also serves to highlight the relationship between Tsar Ivan and the Russian people; blood is spilled by Tsar Ivan, but “cries out against another,” implying that this suffering is not in vain and each life lost serves as a cry to the Lord against Ivan’s barbaric rule (376). The imagery of the blood of an innocent man stained on the church floor, representing suffering being literally stained into the physical site of worship, also shows how each death has religious significance. The implications of such imagery provide an almost hopeful tone to the otherwise bleak and morbid story. Every person’s suffering contributes to the greater moral opposition to Ivan and acts as a way to reach out to God for help and salvation. In this way, blood has the potentially to cleanse and wash away evils and to potentially end suffering for the rest of the Russian peoples, thereby imbuing blood and suffering with a universal and religious significance.

Gender and morality in a religious framework

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In “Life of our Blessed Father Theodosius,” we explore themes of gender, through the role of Theodosius’ mother, and religious devotion and sacrifice. Theodosius’ devotion to his faith through his humility and self sacrificial acts are opposed by his mother who believes his refusal to indulge in material goods brings shame upon their family. In her efforts to preserve her family’s esteem in the eyes of the community, Theodosius’ mother neglects her maternal duties to care for her son and treats him with contempt and abuse. She is concerned with worldly values of social standing and material pleasures rather than obedience to a higher power. The rejection of her feminine caretaking role, Theodosius’ mother also goes against Theodosius’ faith and thus the will of God. Despite her antagonistic role, Theodosius’ mother is still taken pity on by her son who prays for her salvation, again highlighting her sinfulness and immorality of neglecting her son. By finally accepting her son’s faith, Theodosius’ mother dons a veil and takes a passive and subservient role to a greater power, rather than exerting her own power over her son. Through the moral lesson of this tale, gender and religion are tied together to present an idealized version of religious femininity including passivity, reverence to a higher power, and maternal caretaking. Her decision to support Theodosius is not only a submission to God’s will but also the acceptance of her maternal role. This maternal role is also present in the paintings of Russian icons which show male religious figures contrasted against the portraits of Madonna and child. In connection to the story, the female figure is presented as having a supporting and caregiving role to foster male figures’ religious duties. While male religious figures attain sainthood and historical remembrance through great acts of self sacrifice, revere female religious icons attain this through motherhood. Finally, the male figure is expected to go beyond their parental upbringing to fulfill the will of God: “If one does not leave his father or his mother and follow after me, he is not worthy of me” (Life of our Blessed Father Theodosius 124). Again, this paints the female role as bringing life into the world and the male role as transcending their upbringing to achieve a higher purpose. The moral lessons presented within the text also serve to imbue the religious teachings with gendered connotations.